The Rise of Spaceports and the Transformation of the Space Race in the 21st Century

By 2035, the size of the space economy could reach $1.8 trillion. This growth has been driven not only by the accelerated pace of space technology development but also by the construction of spaceports. Today, more than 70 countries across four continents are advancing their space programs, with missions being initiated both by governments and by private companies. Having spaceports “within arm’s reach” allows states to achieve independence from foreign (primarily American) technologies and contractors, as well as to safely operate rockets and satellites for civilian and military purposes. 

Countries are also keen to reap the economic benefits of building spaceports on their territory, and this no longer seems as far-fetched as it once did. Potential space tourists are lining up to experience something unique, equipment for observations and scientific research is being delivered beyond Earth’s orbit, and the era of space debris cleanup businesses is just around the corner. In this article, we explore how these developments relate to spaceports, where new launch infrastructure is currently being built, and why spaceports are forming coalitions.

What are spaceports and how are they used?

A spaceport, also known as a cosmodrome, is essentially an airport designed to facilitate space transportation. While they still serve as launch sites for rockets, spaceports also host final assembly, testing, fueling, and a range of other operations. They can include one or more launch complexes for various types of rockets, runways for airplanes, and storage and processing facilities for fuel, among other types of infrastructure.

Over the decades, the development of horizontal and vertical launches, along with reusable spacecraft, has significantly transformed the requirements and approaches to spaceport construction. At its core, a spaceport remains a port, meaning its operation is closely tied to its location. Spaceports near the equator are better suited for launching satellites into equatorial orbits, while those situated further from the equator are ideal for launching satellites intended for polar or high-inclination orbits. Such orbits are commonly used for meteorological observations and Earth studies. 

When selecting a site for a new spaceport, densely populated areas are typically avoided in order to minimize potential harm in case of accidents. Additionally, rocket stages ideally should fall into uninhabited regions or the ocean after separation.

What has driven the demand for spaceports?

The first cosmodrome to carry out orbital manned launches was Baikonur in Kazakhstan, which was built in 1955 as a military missile testing range, with its first orbital flight taking place in 1957. In response, the United States constructed a spaceport at Cape Canaveral, from which the Apollo missions were launched from the John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC). Today, the U.S. has 14 FAA-licensed spaceports and several private ones that do not require special operational permits. However, spaceport construction has expanded far beyond the United States.

In recent years, the commercial space launch sector has grown rapidly, with private companies investing in space technologies and striving to make space travel more accessible. This has helped democratize space travel, allowing new players with limited ties to NASA, its international counterparts, or government agencies to enter the field. Private companies now aim to offer not just space tourism and cargo delivery services but also services like satellite communications, climate monitoring, agricultural and geological imaging, and, soon, asteroid mining. These emerging markets have attracted private investment to the space industry, fostering the development of new launch vehicles, spacecraft, and the necessary infrastructure for their deployment.

Building independent spaceports is also a way to reduce reliance on monopolistic providers of space launch services. Existing U.S. space infrastructure struggles to meet growing demands, with some facilities being outdated, requiring upgrades, or otherwise unable to compete on cost with newer alternatives. Against this backdrop, other countries are increasingly seeking “space autonomy” by developing their own launch vehicles and ground infrastructure to avoid dependence on foreign suppliers. A robust domestic space industry not only elevates a nation’s international prestige but also stimulates related sectors and creates new jobs domestically.

Space technology is also directly tied to national security. Satellites are used for intelligence, secure communications, navigation, and early warning systems to detect ballistic missile launches. Such capabilities support deterrence strategies against potential threats and ensure information security if other communication methods are compromised or unavailable.

To reduce dependence on the U.S., the European Space Agency (ESA) has been fostering partnerships with various companies and startups within the EU. These entities are developing space capsules, reusable launch vehicles, nanosatellites, and satellite communication services, further strengthening Europe’s position in the global space economy.

The geography of the largest, newest, and currently under-construction spaceports 

In December 2019, the United States Space Force (USSF) was created, providing the United States with freedom of action in space, including the ability to protect its interests in space. The USSF coined the term “spaceport of the future” and is driving the development of spaceport infrastructure to meet the needs of civil government, national security, and private sector demand. Similar processes are occurring in several other countries. 

USA

Today, the United States operates two federal spaceports: Cape Canaveral in Florida and the Vandenberg Space Force Base in California. The former, located near the Kennedy Space Center, remains the only spaceport used for orbital launches of crewed spacecraft. 

Vandenberg, on the other hand, is notable as the launch site of the world’s first polar-orbiting satellite, Discoverer 1. It is currently the only U.S. military base that launches unmanned satellites into orbit, including the 2018 Mission to Mars and IceSat-2. The nearby small town of Lompoc regularly attracts tourists eager to witness rocket launches from the West Coast.

Among other spaceports operating in the United States, notable ones include the Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport (Virginia), the Pacific Spaceport Complex (Alaska), Spaceport America (New Mexico), and the Mojave Air and Space Port (California). Each plays a vital role in ensuring independent U.S. access to space, supporting both governmental and commercial space programs.

South of NASA’s Wallops Flight Facility on Virginia’s Delmarva Peninsula lies the Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport (MARS), which forms part of the Wallops complex. MARS features three active launch pads and holds an FAA license for orbital launches, making it an ideal location for International Space Station (ISS) missions. In 2023, the first successful launch from the newly constructed LC-2 pad at MARS was followed by the start of construction of a new launch pad, LP-0D. Over the past year, several launches using Rocket Lab’s two-stage reusable Electron rockets have been conducted from LC-2, while the forthcoming LP-0D is designed for launches of the company’s larger Neutron rockets. 

The majority of government launches in the U.S. are conducted from the Pacific Spaceport Complex in Alaska, which supports both orbital and suborbital missions. This spaceport also serves smaller rocket manufacturers, including ABL Space Systems and Astra.

Two major private companies are also working on independent spaceports in the U.S. In Texas, near Boca Chica, final testing is underway at “Starbase,” a facility built by SpaceX. As of June 2024, the site includes two orbital launch pads and a manufacturing facility for assembling prototypes and operational vehicles. 

Meanwhile, in West Texas, Blue Origin is developing its private spaceport, Corn Ranch, also known as Launch Site One (LSO). This facility, now FAA-licensed, supports launches of the New Shepard rocket. Notably, Corn Ranch was the launch site for Blue Origin’s first human spaceflight, which included its founder Jeff Bezos as a crew member.

The number of operational spaceports and supporting infrastructure in the United States continues to grow, but a significant portion of all launches continues to be concentrated at just a few sites. According to Deloitte, over the past several years, more than 93% of all orbital flights have been conducted from federal spaceports: 70% from Cape Canaveral, 17% from Vandenberg, and 5% from the Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport. Deloitte projects that, by 2029, the space launch market alone will reach $30 billion. For the U.S. government, this represents funds allocated to protecting national interests—building and operating launch infrastructure is essential for national security, as well as for organizing civilian and commercial launches and conducting tests. To ensure guaranteed access to space, the U.S. must maintain modern launch complexes capable of stimulating both private and governmental demand for launches.

Similar priorities are evident in other major nations as well. However, other states have an additional objective: to achieve full autonomy in their space programs and reduce reliance on American technologies, equipment, and infrastructure as much as possible.

Great Britain

The UK benefits from a favorable geographic location for the development of spaceports and offers safer trajectories over open seas as well as access to valuable polar and sun-synchronous orbits. The construction of spaceports in the UK is being supported by both the government and commercial organizations. The UK Space Agency (UKSA) aims to become a European leader in small satellite launches and has already invested £3.5 million in British spaceports over the past five years. While this amount may seem modest for such ambitious plans, it reflects only direct investments. 

In the summer of 2024, UKSA announced $43 million in funding for 23 different space-related projects, including established initiatives and emerging ventures showcased on crowdfunding platforms. Most of these projects will depend on the availability of modern launch infrastructure.

The first spaceport to receive a license from the national regulator, the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), was Spaceport Cornwall, located in the southwest of the country. It officially began operations in September 2022, and, on January 9, 2023, the UK attempted its first-ever orbital launch from domestic territory. Negotiations are currently underway to enable horizontal launches from Spaceport Cornwall by 2025.

Five other spaceports, mostly in the development or construction phase, are located in Scotland. Among them is the first licensed vertical launch site in the UK: the SaxaVord Spaceport, which began operations in 2023. After an unsuccessful initial attempt, there are plans to launch Skyrora’s suborbital Skylark L rocket from this site in spring 2025. 

After receiving its license in 2022, construction began on the Sutherland Spaceport in southern Scotland. Another horizontal launch site could be Machrihanish in Argyll, where launches from carrier aircraft are planned. Meanwhile, a second horizontal spaceport in Scotland, at Prestwick Spaceport near Glasgow, is currently facing challenges. Government funding has been cut, and further investments are not being considered. Spaceport 1 in North Uist is facing similar problems. Although it hosted its first rocket launch in 2021, it has been dubbed a “costly white elephant” due to difficulties in securing private investment and obtaining a CAA license.

Despite uncertainties surrounding some of the planned Scottish spaceports, however, the ones under construction are advantageously located and will foster the development of new space hubs to support launch sites. Key operational facilities include the Higgs Innovation Centre, the Advanced Forming Research Centre at the University of Strathclyde, and various manufacturing, testing, and assembly sites.

Another British spaceport, Snowdonia, located near the coast in Llanbedr, Wales, aims to complete the certification process by the end of 2024 and begin operations in 2025. It will support launches to sun-synchronous, polar, and suborbital orbits. Wales also hosts several space-focused centers for supporting launch infrastructure, including the TWI Technology Centre and the Universities of Swansea and Cardiff, which offer resources for space-related research.

France

One of France’s most important spaceports, operated by the French National Centre for Space Studies (CNES) and the European Space Agency (ESA) is located in French Guiana. The Guiana Space Centre, also known as the Kourou Spaceport, is just 500 km from the equator, making it an ideal location for launching satellites into geostationary orbit. In 2023, an Ariane rocket launched from Kourou sent a space probe on an eight-year journey to Jupiter, as well as two military communication satellites (one French and one German). In July 2024, the Ariane 6, a European expendable launch system, completed its maiden flight from Kourou.

Norway and Germany

The Andøya Spaceport is located on one of Norway’s islands but is actually operated by the German company Isar Aerospace. This collaboration was enabled by a declaration signed in 2021 between Germany and Norway. It allows for launches of Isar Aerospace’s Spectrum rocket, with the first attempts expected by the end of 2024. In the future, the spaceport could become a hub for European space activities, thanks in large part to its advantageous geographic location.

Japan

Japan’s private Hokkaido Spaceport (HOSPO) is part of the multi-purpose Taiki Aerospace Park. In March 2024, it conducted a suborbital test launch, and the company plans to launch at least five rockets annually starting in 2025. Future developments include constructing a second launch complex and extending the spacecraft runway to 1,300 meters. The spaceport supports both vertical and horizontal launches and serves as a hub for various research and development activities. Currently, HOSPO collaborates with several Japanese and international companies as well as Japanese universities.

Australia

Space Centre Australia (SCA), which is currently under construction, will be a complex of several spaceports spread across two locations on the Cape York Peninsula. The first launches of small spacecraft are planned for late 2026, with larger missions expected no earlier than 2029. Once operational, the spaceport will be the closest launch site to the equator in the Asia-Pacific region.

Peru

At the beginning of 2024, the United States and Peru began searching for the optimal location to build Peru’s first spaceport. Stargate Peru SAC will be situated on the country’s northern coast, as close to the equator as possible to reduce future costs for orbital rocket launches. The spaceport is currently awaiting approval from the Peruvian Air Force and the Peruvian Space Agency.

Establishing a coalition to define international standards for spaceports

The development of spaceports on different continents and in various countries is not a repeat space race of the 1960s. On the contrary, many of the organizations involved in building new spaceports are pooling their efforts. Evidence of this collaboration is a memorandum of understanding signed by eight spaceports from six countries on October 13, 2024, during the International Astronautical Congress (IAC). The agreement outlines plans for joint work among launch complexes to address challenges in the development and operation of their facilities. The coalition’s primary objective is the creation of international standards for spaceports.

The coalition includes Hokkaido (HOSPO), the Pacific Spaceport Complex Alaska, SaxaVord Spaceport, the Australian Space Centre, Stargate Peru, the Virginia Spaceport Authority, and the Swedish Space Corporation. Alongside facilities currently in operation, the coalition includes those in the early stages of construction, such as the Peruvian spaceport. While this diversity complicates the development of universal evaluation methodologies for spaceports, the coalition’s member states are already discussing ways to navigate this challenge and ensure a transparent assessment system. 

One proposed solution is to assign “readiness levels” to spaceports. For instance, Level 1 might correspond to a spaceport still in the design phase, while Level 9 would indicate a facility already conducting multiple vehicle launches. On such a scale, for example, SaxaVord Spaceport would receive a Level 3 rating, as it has the infrastructure and licensing in place but has yet to conduct launches. Meanwhile, MARS (the Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport) would be rated Level 6, given its licensing and fully operational infrastructure capable of supporting one client or one type of vehicle.

Conclusion

The development of the commercial space sector has spurred the construction of new spaceports and supporting infrastructure to meet the rising demand for satellite launches and other space operations. While currently only a few spaceports are regularly used for launches, many others are at varying stages of development, from drafting project documentation and licensing to the final phases of construction. At the same time, the future of some spaceports remains uncertain due to challenges in certification and attracting investment.

In the United States and the United Kingdom, the construction of spaceports is advancing steadily. Major facilities are already operational and plans are underway to further expand infrastructure, most notably at Cape Canaveral and the Vandenberg Space Force Base in the U.S. and the Cornwall Spaceport in the U.K. Regardless of the maturity of their launch infrastructure, many other nations are aiming to develop and adhere to international standards governing spaceport operations. This commitment is evident in the number of members who have joined the coalition to facilitate collaboration and overcome technical and operational barriers in the space sector.

In light of declining costs and growing demand for space launches, the future of spaceports appears promising. Their role in providing broad access to space for various countries and companies is likely to become even more significant.