The year 2024 was one of the hottest in the history of climate research. For the first time in the industrial era, the increase in Earth’s global average temperature approached the 1.5°C mark. This led to abnormal heat waves in various regions worldwide, accompanied by extreme droughts, followed by intense rainfall, which caused floods and landslides due to excessive precipitation. The situation in the Arctic has become particularly alarming, as global warming continues to rapidly reduce ice cover, which gradually raises global sea levels.
In the fight against climate change, space technologies play a crucial role by enabling detailed monitoring, analysis, and forecasting of climate shifts through orbital research of Earth’s atmosphere, rising sea levels, forest conditions, and more. Space technologies are not yet a panacea for combating global warming, but they remain the most comprehensive source of data on the worsening crisis. Combined, these insights help inform decisions aimed at mitigating global temperature rise.
Today, we’ll explore how space technologies help prevent our planet from turning into a barren, blasted wasteland.
The greenhouse threat: which gases cause warming?
The root cause of global warming lies in the increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in Earth’s atmosphere. This leads to a situation in which a large volume of these gases slows down the escape of infrared (heat) energy back into space, causing the planet to retain more warmth. As a result, Earth has entered a self-sustaining cycle of continuous heating, and the gradual rise in greenhouse gas emissions makes this process increasingly irreversible.
Source: forces.si.edu
The majority of all greenhouse gases–about 76%—consists of carbon dioxide (CO2), whose atmospheric levels began to rise significantly with the onset of the Industrial Revolution. The primary sources of CO2 emissions are heavy industry and certain types of power generation, including coal, oil, and natural gas, that rely on burning large amounts of fossil fuels. The increasing number of gasoline- and gas-powered vehicles also contributes heavily to the problem. Deforestation, meanwhile, reduces Earth’s ability to absorb carbon dioxide, since trees are one of the primary means of filtering CO2 from the atmosphere. It is crucial to recognize that CO2 threatens climate stability, as it can remain in the atmosphere for hundreds of years.
The second most prevalent greenhouse gas is methane (CH4). Although its concentration in the Earth’s atmosphere is much lower (accounting for up to 20% of all greenhouse gas emissions, depending on estimates), methane is actually far more effective at trapping heat. In fact, methane emissions are 28–34 times more potent than CO2 in slowing down heat dissipation. The largest sources of methane include agricultural activities (particularly livestock farming and rice cultivation) and the decomposition of waste in unmanaged landfills, which releases significant amounts of gas into the atmosphere.
A much smaller portion of greenhouse gases—about 4%—consists of nitrous oxide (N2O), which enters the atmosphere due to the widespread use of nitrogen-based fertilizers and the burning of fossil fuels. Additionally, increased water vapor (H2O) in the atmosphere is an important indicator of global warming, as it creates a feedback loop that amplifies the greenhouse effect.
Satellite monitoring of greenhouse gas emissions
Given the crucial link between greenhouse gas concentrations in Earth’s atmosphere and global warming, orbital monitoring of emissions serves as the first step in preventing environmental threats. Today, several satellites from leading space agencies and commercial satellite companies are involved in this process.
Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite 1 and 2 (IBUKI-1 and IBUKI-2): Japan’s space agency, JAXA, launched the first GOSAT satellite on January 23, 2009. It was the first spacecraft specifically designed to monitor greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere, tracking methane and carbon dioxide levels across 56,000 observation points as it scanned areas of interest on Earth.
In October 2018, JAXA expanded the capabilities of its greenhouse gas monitoring with the launch of GOSAT-2. This new satellite observed greenhouse gases using two instruments: the TANSO-FTS-2 sensor, which operated in the thermal and near-infrared spectrum to detect emissions, and the TANSO-CAI-2 sensor, which monitored clouds and aerosols. The latter functioned as a radiometer with a linear sensor and bandpass filter for scanning. Although GOSAT-2 is a Japanese satellite, it operates under the European Space Agency (ESA) and plays a key role in external ESA and NASA initiatives tracking climate change dynamics.
Both GOSAT satellites are expected to remain operational until 2025. To ensure continuity in greenhouse gas monitoring, JAXA has already planned the launch of GOSAT-GW, set for this year. Unlike previous versions, this new satellite will not only track greenhouse gases but will also monitor Earth’s water cycles. Studying the connection between water resources and greenhouse gas emissions will provide a comprehensive understanding of the processes driving global warming.
Source: JAXA
Orbiting Carbon Observatories (OCO-2 and OCO-3): Launched in July 2014, OCO-2 recently marked the tenth anniversary of its orbital operations. It was NASA’s first monitoring satellite dedicated to detecting carbon dioxide and remains operational. Observations from OCO-2 have been foundational for numerous scientific studies on CO2 emissions mitigation.
On April 24, 2024, Parazoo et al. published a paper titled “Pre-existing conditions mitigate carbon loss during abrupt droughts.” The study identified several early warning signs that could predict droughts up to three months before they occur. This research is highly significant for drought prevention and rapid response strategies to mitigate its effects.
In 2019, OCO-2’s capabilities were expanded with the installation of OCO-3, an instrument for detecting CO2 emissions from the Japanese Kibo module on the ISS. In November 2023, OCO-3 was temporarily removed from its original position to free up space for other scientific equipment. However, by July 2024, it resumed operations, once again focusing its sensors on Earth.
In December 2024, a study titled “Comparison of CO₂ emission intensity estimates from point sources based on nearly simultaneous observations from OCO-3 and EMIT” was published, using data from both OCO-3 and EMIT (which will be discussed later). The study aimed to compare the effectiveness of these two ISS-mounted sensors in measuring CO2 emissions.
In January 2025, another study, “Atmospheric dryness dominates the post-noon depression of global terrestrial photosynthesis,” was released based on OCO-3 data. Researchers concluded that the primary cause of reduced photosynthesis intensity in terrestrial plants after noon is atmospheric dryness, rather than high temperatures, as previously believed.
Both OCO-2 and OCO-3 remain active and continue to share data with research teams working on the GOSAT and GOSAT-2 projects, contributing to a better global understanding of greenhouse gas concentrations in Earth’s atmosphere.
Another notable satellite is Tanager-1, launched by Carbon Mapper. This American monitoring satellite was deployed aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket on August 16, 2024, as part of the Transporter-11 mission. The point-source emissions monitoring technology was developed at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). Tanager-1’s primary instrument is an ultra-sensitive imaging spectrometer, capable of detecting small-scale methane (CH4) and CO2 emissions from individual facilities and infrastructure.
During one day of observations, the satellite is able to scan an area of 130,000 km².
Source: NASA
The Tanager-1 satellite was developed by the nonprofit organization Carbon Mapper. Representatives from JPL and Planet Labs PBC were also directly involved in its design. The organization operates an online portal where all data on greenhouse gas emissions detected by Tanager-1 and other emission-tracking instruments, including NASA EMIT, are published.
NASA’s EMIT (Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation) is an imaging spectrometer for studying the source of mineral dust on Earth’s surface. The EMIT instrument, as part of the EVIT-4 (Earth Ventures Instrument-4) space mission, was launched to the ISS on July 14, 2022. It consists of an optical telescope and a spectrometer, both aimed at mapping the mineral composition of dust in arid regions. EMIT’s spectroscopic images are obtained using visible and shortwave infrared spectroscopy, in which light reflected from Earth passes through a calcium fluoride crystal refractive element and onto concave gratings, where it is dispersed into spectra and directed to the order sorting filter and detector array.
Source: NASA
The array of spectrometric data obtained through EMIT is available on the Visions open data portal. Anyone can access information on greenhouse gas emissions there, ranging from point sources of atmospheric pollution to massive methane plumes extending from major industrial regions worldwide.
Source: NASA
The European Sentinel-5P (Precursor) satellite became the first monitoring mission from the Copernicus program. It was designed to observe the concentration of greenhouse gases (methane, formaldehyde, aerosols, and carbon monoxide) in Earth’s troposphere using its TROPOMI spectrometer. To collect data on tropospheric conditions, TROPOMI conducted observations in four main spectral bands: ultraviolet (UV), visible (VIS), near infrared (NIR), and shortwave infrared (SWIR). Despite being eight years old, Sentinel-5P is still one of the most sensitive satellites for detecting pollution in the lower atmosphere (up to 20 km in altitude) across a wide range of greenhouse emissions. Similar to other monitoring satellites, the Copernicus constellation also provides open access to its satellite data.
To accelerate the measurement of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, some companies employ a comprehensive approach using multiple satellites. This is the strategy of the private company GHGSat, whose satellite constellation has been growing since 2016. Thus far, six GHGSat monitoring satellites have been launched: Claire (2016), Iris (2020), Hugo (2021), Luca (2022), Penny (2023), and Diako (2023). By expanding its satellite network, GHGSat increases its potential scanning coverage to obtain updated observation data in shorter timeframes. These satellites operate in low Earth orbit, allowing them to capture spectral images with relatively high resolution and detect methane emissions from sources as small as 25 meters in diameter. Observation data is updated every 2–3 days.
In 2025, the European satellite MicroCarb is scheduled for launch. This first European mission aims to track the full life cycle of greenhouse gases in Earth’s atmosphere, from their formation to their absorption by forests and oceans. MicroCarb will be able to map CO2 emissions over major cities worldwide, aiding future urban planning efforts. The project is managed by the UK Space Agency and France’s CNES, with the satellite being developed by Thales Alenia Space UK. As of February 2024, the satellite’s assembly had been completed, and it was transported to France for final testing and launch preparations.
Satellite missions monitoring greenhouse gas emissions remain one of the primary, though not the only, tools for combating global warming. Some recently launched spacecraft focus not on studying the causes of global warming but on monitoring the condition of the planet’s primary carbon sinks: forests.
Satellite monitoring of forest conditions and the implementation of AI-based models
The primary goal of satellite monitoring of forested areas is to prevent their reduction, which can occur due to natural factors (such as wildfires and droughts) or as a result of human activity, particularly uncontrolled industrial deforestation.
The European Space Agency’s main efforts in this area have been implemented through the Copernicus Sentinel-2 satellite mission. This program involves deploying two identical optical satellites into a sun-synchronous orbit (SSO) at an altitude of 786 km. Working together, they provide high-resolution imagery, focusing on vegetation monitoring, forest conditions, water resources, land use changes, and the impact of natural disasters.
Source: sentiwiki.copernicus.eu
Launched on June 23, 2015, Sentinel-2A was joined by Sentinel-2B on March 7, 2017. Both satellites were equipped with the MSI (Multispectral Instrument), which captures images in 13 spectral bands with different wavelengths. This allowed them to produce both shortwave infrared images of the Earth’s surface and standard optical images without spectral decomposition. The resolution of the images depended on the selected spectral band, ranging from 10 meters per pixel (in near-infrared, blue, green, and red scanning modes) to 60 meters (in water vapor and aerosol detection mode).
Over the years, the Sentinel-2 satellite pair has created an extensive dataset with an average update interval of every five days. In early September 2024, a new satellite, Sentinel-2C, was launched to replace Sentinel-2A, whose operational lifespan was nearing its end. On January 21, 2025, a formal transfer of technical responsibilities took place from the old satellite to the new one. A similar replacement is planned for Sentinel-2B after 2028, with the upgraded Sentinel-2D taking its place.
In January of this year, the Sentinel-2 constellation focused on California, where devastating wildfires spread across more than 100 km².
Source: ESA
ESA currently has long-term plans to upgrade the Sentinel-2 system starting in 2035. The next generation of satellites, tentatively named Sentinel-2 Next Generation, will feature improved spectral monitoring instruments but will remain conceptually similar to the previous Copernicus Sentinel-2 satellites.
The Sentinel-2 constellation is not the only active system for monitoring forested areas. In early January 2023, EOS SAT-1 was launched, developed by EOS Data Analytics. This satellite focuses on monitoring agricultural land (to assist in farming) and forests, using two optical cameras capable of capturing satellite imagery in 13 spectral bands.
EOS Data Analytics offers commercial subscription-based services through its EOSDA Forest Monitoring platform. Currently, it provides the most comprehensive range of forest condition monitoring, including tracking deforestation and forest regeneration dynamics, assessing tree health and species classification, measuring carbon dioxide absorption by specific forest areas, and evaluating the extent of wildfires.
Source: eos.com
It is worth noting that the EOSDA Forest Monitoring platform actively employs artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms to analyze large volumes of satellite imagery data and predict the dynamics of these processes on Earth. The machine learning model used in Forest Monitoring continuously learns from past observation data, persistently improving the accuracy of its forecasts.
In terms of actively integrating neural networks into the analysis of its monitoring data, EOS Data Analytics is similar to a joint three-way project between NASA, IBM, and the open AI enthusiast community Hugging Face. The project aims to create an open-source geospatial AI model based on data from the Harmonized Landsat Sentinel-2 (HLS) monitoring satellites, which is currently in the development and preliminary testing phase.
The HLS initiative combines observation data from the Landsat 8 and 9 satellites (operational since 2013 and 2021, respectively) with data from the Sentinel-2 pair. The primary goal of HLS is to integrate data from two different instruments: the Operational Land Imager (OLI) on the Landsat satellites and the Multispectral Instrument (MSI) on Sentinel-2. This integration provides scientists with a more comprehensive view of climate change processes, offering high spatial resolution and a significantly reduced data update interval. Furthermore, a geospatial AI model is now set to assist researchers in processing these massive HLS observation datasets.
IBM’s Watsonx.ai serves as the foundation for this model. The model has already undergone a series of tests, including its use in visualizing tree planting and growth in forestry projects in Kenya. Another trial involved analyzing urban heat islands in a suburb of the United Arab Emirates.
Although the launch of the new AI model for HLS is still ahead, it is already clear that it will be instrumental in predicting and developing new scientific methods for monitoring climate change, forecasting global warming trends, facilitating decision-making in assessing the impacts of natural disasters, and improving the accuracy of climate monitoring overall.
Today, satellite monitoring of forests is one of the key factors in facilitating the natural absorption of greenhouse gases. Unlike regulatory mechanisms, international agreements on emissions reductions, or national and regional oversight bodies, forests require no legal frameworks to carry out their atmospheric purification work. Humanity’s role is simply to observe from space and ensure that forests have the resources they need to continue this fight.
